To locate, confirm and measure the path the Persians took in 480 BC to encircle and defeat the Greeks at Thermopylae.Specifically:
(i)To determine the approach the Persians used to access the Anopaia path.There are at least four likely candidates:
(a)The Damasta Spur
(b)The Chalkomata Spring
(c)The Asopus Gorge
(d)The Varthates-Dyo Vouna approach
(ii)To establish the locatin of the Phokian defense position on Mount Kallidromos
(iii) To determine the path taken to Thermopylae following the skirmish with the Phokians
(iv) To establish precise distances, coordinates and elevations for
each segment of the route (using global positioning equipment)
(v) To determine the total length of the march from Persian camp to the Middle Gate at Thermopylae
(vi) To film the entire route (with commentary)
Dates of Expedition:May 26th through May 30th, 2000
FIRST DAY: Scouting The Area and Planning (May 26th)
The team left Athens at 11:15 a.m. in one car and a jeep. We drove to Kamena Vouria, about 15 kilometers east of Thermopylae and checked into our hotel (Levendis Hotel). Then
Stravros Douvis took us to a waterfront taverna where we had souvlaki
and red mullet (barbouni), a most delicious reddish looking fish, which
we washed down with local beers and wine. I thought that was a fine start to the expedition. After
all, if an army is supposed to march on its stomach why not a group of
intrepid explorers in search of an ancient army’s route? We then drove and scouted the area around Thermopylae and then proceeded to the mouth of the Asopus Gorge. The scenery here is stupendous. In
late May there is still quite a bit of water in the river but in winter
the Asopus is a rushing torrent and it can do a lot of damage. In
fact, it was evident that sections of the bridge at the mouth of the
gorge had been ripped away by the force of the current and at that time
the bride was closed to traffic. Ever respectful of the
ancient gods of Hellas I poured a libation to Zeus (tongue in cheek, of
course), and to any other gods that might have been in that vicinity
and we then proceeded to figure out how to get down to the river now
that the bridge was closed. As luck would have it, or
maybe in response to my libation, we me a kindly old man by the side of
the bridge who could neither neither neither speak, nor hear. However, he insisted on showing us a safe way down to the river and so we followed him. He accompanied us for about a quarter of a mile up the gorge, then stopped, shook his head in disbelief and turned back. He hadn’t realized that we intended to hike up the gorge; he though that we just wanted to have a look. We proceeded further up this magnificent gorge, took some picture and then turned back. By then it was becoming clearer to us what we had to contend with if we intended to hike up this magnificent gorge. It was both exciting and intimidating.
Upon our return the old gentleman was waiting where we had originally found him. It’s as though he just belonged there. He wasn’t doing anything in particular, just sitting by the side of the road fulfilling his mission in life. We joked among ourselves that he was the god of the Asopus in human form and was there to test us. Lest we offend this god I have him 500 drachmas (about a dollar and forty cents). On
seeing the money his face lit up; he did a little bow and continued to
thank us profusely until we disappeared round the bend of the mountain. We know we had done the right thing.
We then drove to the modern city of Heraclia and almost on a whim made inquiries aobut a Mr. Yiannis Zangoyiannis. Both
Burn and Wallace mentioned this gentleman as having assisted them in
their efforts to retrace the ancient path back in the ‘70’s. We had no idea whether he was still alive or how old he was. We were directed to the village of Varthates where we stopped at a café and made further inquiries. After
being given several versions of this man’s demise (one lady confused
him with someone else who had passed away in 1944) it was resolved that
he was still alive and kicking and his house was no more than fifty
meters from our care. So, the four of us plus a local
person trooped up to his house and knocked on his door. His wife
answered and totally bewildered by our unannounced arrival called her
husband to the door. Yiannis, who is now, retired form his job as secretary of the Varthates commune showed up in his “field clothes.” He had been in the fields watering his vegetables. After explaining why were there he was overjoyed that we had chosen to look him up and invited us in. Being an amateur historian himself he was happy to revisit the subject of Thermopylae and the march of The Immortals. He was now 67 years old and looked considerably fitter than us. No question about that! He was to prove that later when he accompanied us on our ascent to Dyo Vouna and up to Chalkomata.
It was still early in the afternoon of the 26th so we decided to take a ride up to Dyo Vouna and the surrounding area in order to get a reading on the lay of the land. Yiannis accompanied us. After returning we were pleasantly surprised to find that his wife Dena had put on a “banquet” for us. She
apologized that she could not provide for us better, given the short
notice, and then proceeded to bring out a wide variety of vegetables,
cooked meat, fish, and of course drinks. She offered us
beer as well and then discovered that it wasn’t cold so,
apologetically, she brought in from the back yard half a dozen bottles
and put them in the fridge. No more than five minutes later she
miraculously produced several bottles of ice cold beer. Unbeknownst
to us she quietly slipped out of the back and had ran down to the
corner café and purchased several cold beers which she then served to
us as though they had come from her fridge. In the merriment and excitement of the occasion we didn’t catch on until later. This is the kind of spirit and generosity these people have which we can never repay.
I
was fascinated by a story Deena told us about A.R. Burn, the great
historian and topographer who stayed with them while he investigated
the various paths over Kallidoromos in the early ‘70s. Apparently he returned to their house one evening totally exhausted after hiking for miles. Deena produced a large bowl of hot water for him to soak his feet in. Burn, who was completely wiped out, could hardly lift his feed so Deena proceeded to wash them for him! What a nice touch!We
resolved to do something really nice for the family after we got back
to the States and very reluctantly they did allow us to treat them to
dinner at the local taverna.Our
discussions with Mr. Zangoyiannis helped us significantly in the
planning of our expedition and we owe much to him and his knowledge of
the topography of the region. We realized that to
investigate and resolve the controversy surrounding the true path of
The Immortals over Kallidromos it was necessary to segment the search
and pursue the different hypotheses individually. We proceeded thus:
On the 2nd day we hiked the route form Varthates to Dyo Vouna, a hike of 2.2 miles. Everyone participated, including Mr. Zangoyiannis.
On the 3rd day we hiked up the Asopus Gorge to a point where the route, coming down from Dyo Vouna meets the Asopus. This is located near the modern railway line just below the Byzantine fortress on Kastro Orias. From the Asopus we then climbed up tot Elevtherochori by way of Kalivia. Phil, Stavros and Andrew hiked this segment.
Our
Magellan global positioning units were left turned on throughout the
trek and this enabled us to determine coordinates, elevation and
distances traveled, including walking speeds. Most of these data, with analysis, will be reported in our scientific version of the expedition (forthcoming).
On the 4th day our search focused simultaneously on the Damasta/Chalkomata region and the segment from Dyo Vouna down to the Asopus. Phil
and Andrew walked the segment from Dyo Vouna and John and Yiannis
walked the Chalkomata/Damasta route to Elevtherochori (from Chalkomata
Bridge).
The last segment of our search (5th
day) began from Elevtherochori to Nevropolis and then down by the
Drakospilia (past the Monastery of Panayia Thermopilon, as it is now
called) to Alpenoi and the Middle Gate. This was covered by John and Andrew.
The Beginning of The Expedition
SECOND DAY: From Varthates do Dyo Vouna (May 27th)
We left our hotel by jeep at 8:45 a.m. and drove to Yianni’s house at Varthates (Stavros, Phil, John and Andrew).After
some planning and calibrating our GPS units (we used two provided to us
by Magellan Corporation and an extra Magellan loaned to us by a
friend), we drove up to the modern village of Dyo Vouna (Two Mountains)
and then to the top.We crossed over the top (at
coordinates 38:47.24N, 22:23.52D, elev. 2190’) and continued down a
rough unpaved road in a southerly direction.We then
drove to the southern side of the valley and continued on the unpaved
road, passed Kouvela, until we reached an old church that is situated
directly below Kastro Orias (what may have been MountOeta). The location of the church is at elevation 1530’ at coordinates 38:46.22N, 22:24.34E.On top of this magnificent mountain there are remains of an old Byzantine fortress.The fortress had been overrun by the Turks in the 1821 War of Independence.The
location of the church (built around 1900 AD) provides a great vantage
point from which to view traces of a path on the opposite slope
(looking north from the church), which we believe may have been used by
the Persians in 480 B.C.From our location we had a good
view of the modern railway that cuts across the lower portion of the
valley, running in a southerly and southwesterly direction before
turning, just below our location, in a southeasterly and easterly
direction up the valley in the direction of Papadhia.The
gorge of the Asopus is also visible from here and so is one of its
southwesterly tributaries. From our location we had a good idea of what
needed to be done.We then returned to Varthates and began our actual hike form a bridge over the Xerias River (on the outskirts of Varthates).
We set out at 1:32 p.m.The bridge is at elevation 250 ft. at coordinates 38:48.70N, 22:24.83E.We started, accompanied by Mr. Zangoyiannis, in a northwesterly direction before turning west and then southwest to Dyo Vouna.We arrived at a point just above Dyo Vouna at 3.05 p.m. (elevation 1520 ft., at coordinates 38:48.50N, 22:22.86E).We
estimated that about 25 minutes of the hike were used for rest breaks
and stopping to film, take coordinates and other bearings.The
journey is 2.2 miles long and a fit hiker or a troop of men who had
marched all the way from Persia could have done it in about an hour and
five minutes.Excluding breaks our GPS recorded an
average speed of 2.1 miles per hour from our starting point at the
bridge to the point just above the village of Dyo Vouna.
Stavros
picked us up with the jeep at this location and we drove back to
Varthates where Deena, Yiannis’ wife, put on a spread for us.It was a real feast.I guess his time she had the time “to do things right” (in her own words) and did she ever!!!
THIRD DAY (up the Asopus Gorge to Elevtherochori (May 28th)
We set out from our hotel in Kamena Vourla at 8:30 a.m. and arrived at the mouth of the Asopus River at 9.18 a.m.We got organized, obtained coordinates and set out at 9.27 a.m.Our river god was not there to greet us on this occasion.Obviously 500 drachmas can go a long way in this part of the world, even for a god.The elevation at the mouth of the river is 260’ and our coordinates are 38:47.45N, 22:26.60E.We started on a heading of 164 degrees south.The gorge winds and turns at different points of its gently ascent.The sides of the gorge are steep and at times the gorge itself becomes very narrow (about two meters wide).Up the sides of the gorge, about two thirds of the way up, we observed many large caves.They are difficult to access and one would need ropes to get down to them from the top.We left that challenge to another expedition!Further up the river the gorge opens out to about 50-60 meters (coordinates at 38:46.56N, 22:26.18E), elevation 390’.
About 2.5 miles up the river, at elevation 470’ (at coordinates 38:46.34N, 22:25.63E), the river becomes impassable.Huge boulders make walking difficult and the depth of thewater is at about waist level.We arrived at this point at 12:02 p.m., two and a half hours after setting out.Walking up the gorge was tough going.The rocks made footing difficult and quite a bit of the time we walked ankle, or knee deep in water.Refreshing though that was, walking in soaking wet boots and socks for prolonged periods of time is not recommended!
During parts of this trek the sides of the gorge were so high and steep that our GPS units became inoperable.We
therefore had to estimate speed and distances based on information
obtained while the GPS units were in contact with available satellites.Fortunately,
I also carried both an altimeter watch and a compass so we were able to
obtain some measures with a good degree of accuracy.
Since the gorge was clearly impassable at this point, we decided to climb up to the top of the west bank.After
some heavy climbing through dense brush and scrub we arrived at a
clearing, a meadow, 200x40 meters wide at elevation 770’ (coordinates
38:46.34N, 22:25.09E).It was now 12.54 p.m.
We stopped here for a while and tended to our “wounds.”We
were scratched up pretty badly clambering out of the gorge, and
fighting our way through some of the thickest scrub we’d encountered so
far.We then crossed the southwestern tributary of the
Asopus at coordinates 38:46.23N, 22:25.15E and picked up a path that
led sharply upwards to the top of a ridge that is situated directly
below and east of Kastro Orias.We reached the top of this ridge at 2:09 p.m. at elevation 1040 ft (coordinates 38:46.09N and 22:25.00E).We
then continued downhill on the other side of this ridge on a heading of
170E and arrived at 2:30 p.m., at a fork in the river.Interestingly,
none of the maps available to us indicated the existence of this second
fork. We stopped here, between the two tributaries of the Asopus,
rested and had lunch (about 25 minutes).I was out of water by then, the river looked clean so I took a chance (several days later I still seem to be all right).We shall see).At about 2:55 p.m. we set out again by crossing the northeastern tributary of the river fork on a heading of 115 degrees east.The climb from here is steep and one needs to be in good shape to do it.Stavros,
who served in the Greek Special Forces in earlier years (he is now 58)
took off with a vengeance and left Phil and me behind.Phil,
who was also in good condition, no doubt could have kept up with
Stavros but chose to wait for me near the top of the ridge, just below
the new highway to Delphi.It’s just as well because I was dying.My pulse rate hit 168 beats per minute on more than one occasion.At one point in the upward climb I passed a farm where a very big horse was tethered by a long rope to an old beat-up truck.A couple of dogs were barking furiously at me but I was too far-gone to care.I even considered “borrowing” the horse but I couldn’t figure out a way to climb on him.By then I could hardly walk.
As
it turned out, when Phil and I eventually reached the main highway at
4.45 p.m. (coordinates 38:45.70N, 22:26.85E) Stavros, John and Irene,
an archaeologist friend who had joined us late in the expedition, were
waiting for us at a gas station with a supply of ice cold Cokes.I must say, Coca- Cola never tasted so good!
After
recovering somewhat we got in the car and drove up to Elevtherochori
while John Douvis completed the journey to the village (which was about
6/10 of a mile just above us from the gas station), on foot.He left the gas station at 38:45.75N, 22:26.90E at 5 p.m. in the center of Elevtherochori.This part of the climb was also steep and narrow in parts.
In summary, we started up the Asopus Gorge at 9.27 a.m. and arrived at Elevtherochori at 5.25 p.m.This included breaks, stops for filming, taking coordinates and the like.At a steady pace the hike up the Asopus Gorge to Elevtherochori should take no more than five and a half hours (if that).However,
the Asopus is associated with a number of problems that we feel that
make it untenable as a possible route for Hydarnes and the Immortals.These
include the narrowness of the gorge, the vulnerability of men trekking
in such a gorge from defenders occupying the heights above, and the
lack of secure footing in the river itself, especially when attempting
to hike the gorge at night.In this respect we are in full agreement with Wallace’s conclusions.
FOURTH DAY (May 29th)
On
this day Phil and Andrew hiked from Dyo Vouna down to the Asopus while
John and Yiannis examined the Damasta/Chalkomata approach starting from
Chalkomata Bridge.This is an alternate approach taken by previous explorers.This
route was suggested by Mr. Zangoyiannis who indicated that tradition
and local lore had marked it as a possible approach to the Anopaia.
From Dyo Vouna to the Asopus
We
started just above Dyo Vouna (where we left off on Day 2) at 10:40
a.m., coordinates 38:48.50N, 22:22.86E, at elevation 1520’, on a
heading of 147 degrees east.The modern road now covers the ancient path leading up to the crest from Dyo Vouna so we took that to the top.The climb is steep but not terribly difficult, even for me.The surrounding countryside is magnificent.On
our left we passed the Dema Gap, a narrow cleft in the rocky outcrop
just to the left (southeast) of Dyo Vouna and further up the valley we
saw, on our right, the old village (now abandoned) of Ano (Upper) Dyo
Vouna.At the top of the ridge we saw a shepherd following his flock in a white Toyota pick-up truck and talking on his cell phone.His dog (we were pleased to see that some things never change) was doing all the work guiding his goats down the road.He
stopped his car, got out and chatted with us for a while and when he
found out our mission he promptly informed us that the Persians had
gone up the Asopus.I asked him how he knew that.He stopped, scratched his head and told us that this was the story handed down to him form his father and grandfather.Good answer we thought but clearly wrong.We
had done the Asopus the previous day and unless miraculous changes had
taken place in the past 2500 years there was no way Ephialtes would
have taken 9000 men up that gorge, and lived.The irate Persians would have carved him up and served him as shish kebab!
We
cleared the crest at 11:35 a.m. at elevation 2190’ (coordinates
38:47.24N, 22:23.52E) and picked up an unpaved trail that led in a
southeasterly direction (152E), downward to the Asopus.We could not tell if this was part of a path that led down to the river in ancient times.However,
the Persians could have managed it even without the existence of such a
path because the northern slope of the valley is quite gentle all the
way down to the Asopus.The path, which was initially the width of a truck led us down in a southeasterly direction and then narrowed considerably.At coordinates 38:46.99N, 22:23.62E we reached a fork.The
right fork leads toward the southern side of the valley, in the
direction of Kouvela, while the left fork (to the east) continues on
down the northern slope of the valley in a southeasterly direction
toward the Asopus.We took the left fork and after making
our way down this relatively easy slope (Mount Oeta or Kastro Orias was
on our right) we arrived at the modern railway line at 1.03 p.m.The elevation here is 1030 ft. at coordinates 38:46.43N and 22:24.64E.The distance from our starting point at Dyo Vouna is 3.1 miles, which we covered in 2 hrs and 20 minutes.Once more, we need to point out that it took us longer because we stopped often to film and take coordinates.The Asopus Gorge is another half a mile or so beyond this point.Since
we had already hiked up part of the area between the gorge and the
railway line the previous day, we decided, instead, to explore along
the railway line in a southeasterly direction (toward Papadhia).We walked the bridge over the Asopus (which is quite high) and continued on for about ¾ mile.Seeing
nothing of relevance to our search (other than the overall beauty of
the location and the flat topped mountain of Kastro Orias looming over
us) we terminated this segment of our search.We then
hiked up a very steep path (in a northwesterly direction) leading from
the railway line up the southern slope of the valley toward the church
directly below the northern slope of Kastro Orias.This was our extraction point for the day.I (Andrew) followed Phil who led the way up armed with a stout stick that he used to drive away snakes.He told me that snakes generally move away from vibrations so every few feet he would strike the ground with his stick.
I just hope the snakes got the message!Actually, he reminded me of Moses climbing up Mount Sinai.I just followed trusting his judgment.
Besides, by now the temperature was in the high 90’s, I was exhausted and didn’t much care.
After a very difficult climb we made it to the church.We waited there for two and a half hours for Stavros to come and pick us up in the jeep.We had completed our segment of the journey a little quicker than originally anticipated.
While we were waiting to be picked up a local shepherd showed up and we started talking in Greek.I
was sitting down leaning against a gnarled old tree with my back to the
valley below, keeping an eye on the dozen or so cows that were grazing
around the church, ever alert of our presence.Some had huge horns and I just wasn’t too happy with the way they looked in my direction.The shepherd turned out to be a young Albanian in his early twenties who spoke perfect Greek.I
asked him about his life and about Kastro Orias and he told me an
interesting story that I have not as yet been able to confirm.The story he told was the folklore that is shared among the locals.
Apparently, during the War of Independence in 1821, the Turks had besieged the fortress.The defenders refused to yield and the Turks were unable to breach the defenses.They therefore decided to wait them out until the defenders began to run out of food and water.A pregnant woman who needed water badly was allowed out of the fortress to go search.As
the Greeks opened the gate to let her out the Turks, who were hiding
around and below the wall, charged them and managed to force their way
into the castle.They massacred all the men but some of the women and children hurled themselves form the crest down to the valley below.Death was preferable to captivity, it would appear.I was intrigued by this story and made a mental note to find out more about the history of Kastro Orias.I think a visit is definitely called for.The view from the top must be absolutely magnificent!
An Alternate Route to the Damasta/Chalkomata Path
John Douvis and Yiannis Zangoyiannis completed this segment of the expedition.They departed from Chalkomata Bridge at 11:15 a.m., at elevation 295 ft., on a heading of 81East.The coordinates of their starting point were: 38:47.43N, 33:26.60E.They
continued on an easterly heading until about 12:15 p.m., at which point
they turned on a heading of 177 South, at elevation 731 ft.Their coordinates at this point were: 38:47.12N and 22:27.62E (near Chalkomata Spring).At 1:30 p.m. they crossed the national highway at elevation 1652 ft.They had covered 2.1 miles in two hours and 15 minutes.The climb was steep and narrow in parts.Mr.
Zangoyiannis noted that the change in vegetation in the past fifteen
years, commenting that the path had been less difficult in earlier
years.At 2.p.m. they changed heading at elevation 1778 ft. to 273 degrees were and continued in a southwesterly direction.At
3.20 p.m. they arrived at Elevtherochori, at elevation 2445 ft., on a
heading of 140 south, after covering 4 miles in four hours and five
minutes.The coordinates of their arrival point at Elevtherochori were 38:45.96N and 22:27.60E.After
subtracting twenty-five minutes for breaks, for stopping to take
coordinates and for filming, their trip enabled them to cover the
distance in just over 1 mile per hour.Needless to say they were exhausted, despite the fact they were in very good condition.
Given
the steepness of the terrain, and the narrowness of the path in several
places we concluded that this was not a likely route for the Persians.In fact, it seemed more difficult and problematic than the Chalkomata and Damasta approaches.Further,
all three approaches would have enabled the front ranks of the
Immortals to arrive at their contact point with the Phokians over
Kallidromos much too early in the morning.
Finally
given the narrowness of some segments of our route (which eventually
joins the Chalkomata/Damasta path), had the Persians taken one of these
options their army would have been strung out for well over two miles.Strategically and logistically this would not have been an optimal situation for them.Therefore,
we think it unlikely that the Persians climbed up Mt. Kallidromos by
way of Chalkomata Bridge (our route) or the Damasta/Chalkomata
approaches.
5th Day, May 30th (from Elevtherochori to Thermopylae)
John
and Andrew completed this segment of the route. Phil drove the jeep and
was responsible for dropping us off at Elevtherochori and picking us up
at the modern town of Thermopiles, just under a mile east of the Middle
Gate and the battleground.
We set off from the old café in the center of Elevtherochori at 10:10 a.m. (elevation 2400’).As we were getting ready to leave there were two or three old men sitting at the café who took an interest in us.John spoke with them and explained that we were planning to hike to Nevropolis and then to Thermopylae.They shook their heads in disbelief and one of them made the sign of the cross, blessed us and wished us luck.Ominous start, I thought.Did they know something we didn’t?
Knowing that this segment would be quite long we decided to carry two 1.5 litres of water instead of our usual 1.5 litres.These weighed us down a bit more but the alternative was less attractive.We had no idea whether we’d be able to find water anywhere along the route.
We
started our trip on the paved road leading out of Elevtherochori at
elevation 2400’, coordinates 38:45.70N, 22:27.50E., and we continued
our upward climb on a heading of 80E until the paved segment of the
road ended.We walked at about 2.2 miles per hour.It was all an uphill climb moderately difficult but not terribly exhausting.We were still fresh, of course. The path is wide enough for a car, with a few feet to spare.It goes through thick forest of pine and other vegetation that I was not familiar with.After
about an hour of walking the path starts to level off at 2900’ and,
after continuing for another fifteen minutes, we arrived in Nevropolis
at 3040’ (coordinates 38:45.06N, 22:29.21E, on a heading of 130E).The hike from Elevetherochori to this point is 2.4 miles.Here we found ourselves in an open meadow, shaped like a bowl that is ringed by rocky outcrops.It is widest at its center and as the path continues in a northeasterly direction the valley begins to narrow.As
we made our way along the path a baby goat that started to approach us,
bleating loudly along the way, met us. Since we clearly failed to grasp
the message the bleating became more insistent.After coming within ten feet of us, she stopped and studied us very closely.Clearly there was something about us.The
bleating continued and when we still failed to find the right answers
she turned around and walked off in what I can only describe as disgust.I could just imagine her thinking “more goddam tourists!”
By
this time the shepherd showed up (a woman in her thirties, maybe older)
all bundled up, head covered, and explained that the baby was probably
looking for its mother.We had a few words with her and
then we continued down the path toward a good-sized craggy outcrop of
rock that rises to what we estimated to be around 250’.We
examined this hill for some time because, according to some authorities
this may have been the hill that the Phokians retreated to after their
unsuccessful skirmish with the Persians.We stopped, took elevation measure and coordinates and did some filming.Being
there you get a perspective and begin to develop insights that no
scholarly articles or books could ever hope to supply you with.After
studying the place we started to see how a good commander would have
deployed his troops, given the physical characteristics of the location
and the number of troops under his charge.If the
skirmish did in fact take place here, we think that the Phokians
arrayed themselves near the point where the path enters, or joins the
open meadow because here the meadow is at its narrowest.This gives the defenders a superior defensive position and prevents the enemy from full deploying their superior numbers.Of
course, Herodotus tells us that the Phokians were caught napping so any
strategic advantage the location may have provided them with was
clearly lost.Overwhelmed by superior Persian firepower
they retreated to the crest of the mountain, to their rear, and
prepared to defend themselves to the death.We studied
and filmed this hill (referred to by some as Pyramid Rock) and we
concluded that it would have not been terribly difficult for men in
armor to climb it and assume a defensive position on it.
After
the Phokians had retreated to this hill we could imagine Hydarnes
arraying his archers by the side of the path, facing the Phokian
defenders occupying the higher slopes, and harassing them with volleys
of arrows until the rest of the army passed safely directly below.
Herodotus tells us that the Persians decided not to waste time on the
Phokians and chose instead to move on and descend the mountain at a
rapid pace. Why waste their time on only a thousand Phokians?There were, after all, nine thousand of them!
The
scenario as described above seemed quite reasonable until we examine
what Herodotus has to say about the events of that morning’s skirmish.He writes:
“The Phokians, galled by the shower of arrows to which they were exposed…. fled hastily to the crest of the mountain….”
This statement is problematic because the crest of the mountain (Kallidromos) is not at this point but another 1.8 miles beyond.Did Herodotus mean to say, perhaps, that the Phokians retreated to the top of the hill?While
this by itself is reasonable, the next statement by Herodotus suggest
that the skirmish had actually taken place at the crest of the
mountain. He says:
“the
Persians with Ephialtes and Hydarnes, not thinking it worth their while
to delay on account of the Phokians, passed on and descended the
mountain with all the possible speed.”
If
they in fact “passed on and descended the mountain,’ clearly there was
no more climbing to be done because this was the crest of the mountain.Having
walked the area we now know that it is not possible to descend the
mountain from Nevropolis because Nevropolis is almost two mile below
the crest.
The
Anopaia veers to the right (in a northeasterly direction) directly in
front of Pyramid Rock and continues for about a hundred yards until it
begins to snake upwards once more.A right fork at this
pint, by the side of a dry lake (about 70 meters in diameter), takes
the traveler down to Paleohorio wile the left fork leads upwards to
Mourouzo.The coordinates at this fork, by the dry lake, are 38:44:77N, 22:29.82E and the elevation is now 3100’.The distance from Elevtherochori to this fork is 2.9 miles.We arrived here at 11.52 a.m.
The
path from Nevropolis continues upwards for another 1.8 miles to the
actual crest of Kallidromos until it reaches a flat, bowl-shaped
opening about 300-400 meters in diameter.This is at elevation 3650’, at coordinates 38:45.35N, 22:30.79E.We arrived here at 1:10 p.m., after stopping for lunch for about twenty-five minutes.From here one has a magnificent view of the Malian Plain.We
now speculate that this location is a more likely candidate for the
skirmish with the Phokians because this is where the descent of the
mountain actually begins.And there are several craggy outcrops here where the Phokians could have retreated to make their final stand.
We
realize of course that it is impossible to answer this question with
any degree of confidence at this time because it is difficult to know
how accurate Herodotus was on his details of the skirmish.However,
we suggest that excavation at both locations may be a worthwhile
endeavor since it may enable us to locate some of the arrowhead that
the Persians loosened on the Phokians during their brief encounter.Since
we know of only such skirmish, the site that yields Persian arrowheads
from this time period will settle the question once and for all.And,
since arrowhead of the type used by the Persians at the Battle of
Marathon was also found on one of the hillocks at Thermopylae, where
the Greeks made their final stand, it is highly likely that such
artifacts may still be retrievable on Mt. Kallidromos as well.
As
mentioned, earlier, we took the left fork just beyond the dry lake in
the direction of Mourouzo and reached the crest at 1:10 p.m.The path at the crest passes very close to the edge of the mountain.From
here one has a panoramic view of the Malian Plain and the village of
Old Drakospilia (now abandoned) to the right, situated on the western
slope of a huge spur that juts northwards into the Malian Plain.From
this vantage point, 4.2 miles from Elevtherochori, the Anopaia descends
quickly downward in an east/northeasterly direction.We
met a couple of shepherds at this pint who assured us that this was the
path the Persians took in their downward descent to the plain below.We were amazed at how the legend still lingers on, even among these simple, uneducated folk.
Just
like the Persians we began our descent at a rapid pace and continued on
a present day unpaved road in a northeasterly/easterly direction
(heading of 70E).On a couple of occasions we arrived at forks in the path.If
you don’t know your way it’s easy to get lost and this is why someone
like Ephialtes was invaluable as a guide, especially at night.Wallace
notes that he got lost in the latter part of this hike and had to seek
the help of shepherds in order to get back on track.
One such fork at (coordinates 38:45.21N, 22:31.29E) is conveniently sign posted today.The left path leads downward in the direction of Panayia Thermopilon.We took it and continued our hike until, at 3360’, we reached another fork in the road at coordinates 38:45’90N, 22:31.92E.One segment continues eastwards (heading of 117E) while the other turns north.At
this point, instead of checking our coordinates with our map to
determine how far eastwards we’d gone, we picked the northern route
(because it just seemed the more logical way to go).This
path, after continuing north for about half a mile tuned in a
northeasterly direction until it brought us to the crest above the
Malian Plain.The battlefield was directly below us. We were at 3100’ft at coordinates 38:46.45N, 22:32:41E.There
is no way down from here so we continued eastwards until we descended
into a beautiful river valley (which is mostly dry in May) with meadows
and fairly wide pathways on either side of the riverbed.This
wide enough to accommodate an army, we reasoned, and we began our
descent in a northerly direction down to the Malian Plain.After
hiking down the river valley for about half an hour we began to
encounter larger boulders and the climb down started to get difficult.Perhaps
this was not the way down, we thought, but we persevered a bit longer
until the riverbed, which had by now narrowed to just a few feet,
became sheer drop. We were at 2000 ft, and Thermopylae is below us and
slightly to our left.Clearly, this was not the way down.As
we were standing at the edge of this huge drop, looking down at the
Malian Plain, John commented that the only way the Persians could have
gotten down from here was by bungee jumping!!
We trudged back up to the top once more in the hope that the next valley to our east is the right one.The hike up is rocky, steep and difficult and we were running out of water.Every so often we heard slithering in the tall grass and occasionally we saw a snake moving away form us.We had no problem with that!We cleared the crest and crossed over to the next valley, moving in an easterly/northeasterly direction.This next valley is gorgeous, full of trees, a meadow and a lot of tall green grass.The river at the bottom has a fair amount of running waters so I sighed with relief.At least we weren’t going to die of thirst for, by now, we had used up all our remaining water.We
hiked downward along its western slope in a northeasterly direction to
determine whether this river valley provides access to the plain below.Before
long it was evident that this too is impassable and we turned around an
climbed uphill for about half a mile, to appoint where we were able to
turn east and cross the river.John carried on by following a narrow path that leads upwards in a northeasterly direction.I stopped and drank from the river.By
now I was too tired and too thirst to care so I filled one of my
canteens, covered the spout with my hankie and drank some of the water.Hopefully, the hankie filtered out some of the ‘residents’ of the river.I
had done the same thinking when I drank from the Asopus and I was still
all right; so, I figured that I wasn’t taking too much of a chance.I then continued on in the same direction as John and eventually caught up with him about eighty yards ahead.He was talking to a woman who appeared to live in a wooden shack a short distance beyond.The
shack was inside a small enclave of branches, fencing, and an
assortment of natural and man-made objects that served to keep sheep
inside, and to mark the boundary of her domain.A young black and white bounded up to us and alternated being a fearsome guard dog and a playful little puppy.I tried to make friend with him but he would only bark at me and keep his distance.I spoke to him in both English and Greek and beckoned him over to me with my hand but I just couldn’t get him to approach me.I was disappointed.
The
woman listened politely to our explanation and the purpose of our hike,
looked at us as though we had been out in the sun a tad too long (which
we had been) and then beckoned us to follow her for about twenty paces
in an easterly direction. She then pointed down below and there we saw
another valley, and snaking its way downward in a northerly direction
was our path (coordinates 38:46.00N, 22:33.05E, elevation 2740’).There it was, we had found it once more!It was now 4:47 p.m. and we had been walking since 10.10 in the morning!We
were confident that this was the right valley because it was the only
way down to the Malian Plain east of Thermopylae that afforded access
to the main road near the ancient village of Alpenoi.Since
we had already established that the two previous valleys to our west
were impassable, this must have been the valley that enabled the
Persians to march down to the coast road.Of course they
could have marched even further eastwards and taken the next valley
down, but this would have added more miles to their journey.
It
is our conclusion that since the two previous valleys leading down to
the Malian Plain are clearly impassable, the Persians must have taken
the same path we were now on.Besides, this is the only
path that comes out directly above the ancient village of Alpenoi, and,
according to Herodotus the Persians arrived at the main road near
Alpenoi.
John asked her how far down it was to the main road and how long it would take us to walk it.The
question appeared to confuse her and, after thinking abut it, she told
us that that it was fourteen kilometers, which she could walk in an
hour!This distance was clearly wrong and may have been
the result of a communication problem (although we spoke to her in
Greek) but, more likely, it may reflect differences in perceptions of
time and distance, for, we had encountered similar problems with other
local people. In talking to a shepherd while on an
earlier section of the path, we had difficulty pinning him down as
whether we should go left or right.His response was “yes, down there in that direction.”When
we asked him once more to clarify whether he meant left or right his
response was “yes, down a bit further and turn that way, “ all the time
pointing with his upraised arm.The directions were
obviously quite clear in his mind but communicating these with the kind
of precision that we were seeking seemed totally alien to him.In his mind we were clearly the idiots.
The path today has been widened and is used by local shepherds and farmers with tractors and pick-up trucks.It
is unpaved of course and this modern road follows, we believe, the same
contours and features of the original Anopaia Path that was used in
antiquity.
We
thanked the woman for her help an as we turned to leave the ancient
laws of hospitality kicked in and she apologized to us for not having
invited us in for coffee. It was the furthest thing from our minds and
yet her behavior seemed to fit the situation despite the fact that she
didn’t know us, and we were, after all, in the middle of nowhere.Yet,
even here in the wilderness ancient cultural practices, passed down
from generation to generation to the modern era, were still strong.I was moved by that but I didn’t mention it to John who by now had pressed on down the path.However,
John later quipped that someone should tell the Greek Olympic Committee
about this female athlete living in the wilds of Kallidromos who could
walk 14 kilometers in an hour!They could use her talents!We had a good laugh about that and continued on down the path until we passed by the Monastery of Panayia Thermopilon.It looked interesting so we decided to investigate.We turned off the path and entered the monastery grounds where we were greeted by a lone monk.While he was unable to confirm our directions he did direct us to the sweetest tasting water I have ever tasted.The water flowed out of the mountain and into their vegetable garden.Over the water source was a marble plaque with a fairly lengthy inscription in Greek, the last few lines of which read,“…if
you drink this water you will live forever and you will join the 300
and I, “ presumably in reference to Leonidas and the three hundred
Spartans.I drank a lot!
After
refreshing ourselves for about twenty minutes we continued downwards in
the direction of the road that would, eventually, take us to the modern
town of Thermopiles.The path zig-zags down the valley until it reaches the gentler, northern paths, with another shepherd.He greeted us, and on noticing John’s cell phone inquired politely whether he could make a call.Clearly not expecting such a request John asked him if he knew how to use a cell phone.Offended, and mildly indignant he assured us that he did know and offered to pay for the call.We stood there in total amazement while the shepherd made his call.He offered to pay once more but John wouldn’t have it.He thanked us politely and we went our separate ways.The incongruity of the situation lingered for a while.Here
we are in the middle of nowhere and this, presumably isolated, poor
shepherd of little education is asking us to use the latest in high
tech communication.It took quite a bit of mental re-adjustment on our part to deal with it.
As we continued down the path his dog followed us a little ways, all the time barking incessantly at us.He had no intention of doing us harm but the barking was by then driving me insane.I
reached down to grab a rock and, to my total amazement the dog
recognized the gesture, immediately stopped barking and turned around
and ran off.John commented that clearly the dog has seen that gesture before. Had he ever!
At 290’, the unpaved path joins a paved road that runs in a northwesterly direction toward the modern village of Thermopiles.The coordinates here are 38:47.80N, 22:33.70E.This
location is directly above the ancient site of the village of Alpenoi
where, Herodotus tell us, the Persians actually came down and then
proceeded to the ancient road which ran east west, slightly north of
Alpenoi.
At
one point in our descent along this segment of the Anopaia we passed
remnants of old Byzantine walls, which ran in an east-west direction.Pritchett
and others suggest that they may be of the time of Justinian and the
whole area may have been heavily fortified at one time.Clearly, the slopes abut the Thermopylae area had been fortified at different periods in history.Despite
the fact that little archaeological work has been done it is still
possible to observe, if one hiked a little off the beaten path,
evidence of shards, old structures, walls and fortresses.The
amount of such evidence, form earlier times before the battle of
Thermopylae, through to Roman and Byzantine times suggests that the
region was perhaps more important than was previously thought.Pritchett writes:
“Mt. Kallidromos, all in all, must be the most heavily walled mountain in Greece, and yet few of these walls have been reported in the literature.It is apparent that the whole history of the mountain must be restudied.” (footnotes, p.211, AJA, New Light on Thermopylae).
The
path eventually debouches about half a mile east of the modern day
village of Thermopiles at coordinates 38:47.99N, 22:33.10E at the
junction of the national highway and the Mendenitsa/Kallidromos turnoff.We arrived here about 8:25 p.m. and then walked to the village of Thermopiles where Phil picked us up in the jeep.We then proceeded to the monument and the battleground for one final farewell to Leonidas and the fallen.
Including getting lost, our hike on the last day took us 10.5 hrs!I still don’t know how we managed it.Even John looked bad and he was in tremendous shape!!
Our Findings
1.
We agree with Wallace that the Varthates Dyo Vouna route is the most
likely approach taken by the Persians to reach the Asopus River.
2.
The route from Dyo Vouna, down the northern side of the valley to the
Asopus seems the most likely candidate for this segment of the path.We
hypothesize that the Persians crossed the Asopus near, or at
coordinates 38:45.75N, 22:25.30E, and then hiked up to the crest of one
hill, descended down the other side and then ascended once more in the
direction of Kalivia, toward Elevtherochori.While the
climb to Elevtherochori is quite steep in parts, a body of elite troops
who had marched all the way from Asia would not have found it terribly
exhausting.
3.
Alternatively, if as Herodotus suggests, the Persians took the Anopaia
where it begins at the Asopus, then it is unlikely they went by way of
Elevetherochori because this path is too steep to be the true Anopaia.A
more direct, more accessible and wider path exists by way of Papadhia
that connects directly with Nevropolis, bypassing Elevtherochori all
together.We hypothesize that this may have been the true Anopaia and we intend to examine this route in the spring of 2001.If,
on the other hand, the Immortals hiked up by way of Elevtherochori and
then connected to the Anopaia at Nevropolis and not where it begins at
the Asopus, then Herodotus may be in error on this point (see
discussion below under New Questions).
4. The total distance the Persians traveled from Varthates to the Middle Gate is approximately 21.5 walking miles.This is quite at variance with the distance of 15.5 miles suggested by Wallace in 1980.However, Wallace had to work from maps and was not afforded the luxury of possessing global positioning equipment.
The
distance from Varthates to the crest just north of Paliovoros and
Lazara is 12.7 miles (coordinates 38.45.35N, 22:30.79E at 3650’).In this respect Herodotus is quite right when he reports that the descent is shorter than the ascent.From the crest to the ancient road just north of the Alpenoi is approximately 7.5 miles.
From Varthates to Dyo Vouna is 2.2 walking miles
From Dyo Vouna to the Asopus is 3.6 walking miles
From the Asopus to Elevtherochori is 2.7 walking miles
From the Elevtherochori to Nevropolis is 2.4 walking miles
From Nevropolis to the crest is 1.8 walking miles
From the crest down to the national highway at Mendenitsa/Kallidromos turn-off (.5 miles west of Alpenoi) is 7.5 walking miles
From the crest to just about the site of Alpenoi is 7 walking miles
From the Mendenitsa turn-off on the national highway to the battle site of Thermopylae is 1.4 walking miles.
Thus
the total distance the Persians traveled from Varthates to the Middle
Gates is 21.5 miles, which they covered in approximately 13 hours.If we subtract approximately one hour for the skirmish with the Phokians, they actually marched for 12 hours.Including rest stops, therefore, they averaged approximately 1.79 miles an hour.This
is not bad considering that they were armed (albeit lightly) and also
had to carry water, possibly some food, and had to march most of the
distance in the dark.However, the trip from the crest to the Alpenoi road is mostly downhill and they may have been able to make much better time.We covered this segment of the path at about 2.7 miles per hour.
Based
on the terrain we traversed and the topographical features of
Kallidromos we estimate that they may have been able to march four
abreast and the whole column of 9000 may have been strung out for
almost a mile.While this would not hinder their ability
to march at a particular speed, it would slow down their ability to
regroup for battle.This may have added to the length of
their trip, both at the skirmish with the Phokians and at their arrival
near Alpenoi, for, presumably, they would have had to wait for most of
the remainder of the column to catch up and close ranks before marching
on against the Greek defenders at Thermopylae, about 1.4 miles away.
6. Our investigation casts doubt on Nevropolis as the location of the skirmish with the Phokians.While
we don’t reject this location outright, we are now of the opinion that
the encounter may have taken place near the true crest of Kallidromos
where the Anopaia passes just north of the Paliovoros and Lazara at
elevation 3650’ (see discussion under New Questions below).
7. Our investigation of the Asopus Gorge makes this an unlikely candidate.It
is very narrow in parts footing is uncertain and strategically it is
not defensible against an assault from the heights of the gorge.However,
it is slightly shorter (18.8 miles) than the Varthates route (21.5
miles) and, assuming it was passable in 480 BC, it is theoretically
(but not practically or strategically) a viable option.
8.
We were not able to test the Damasta/Chalkomata approaches as suggested
by Wallace, Pritchett, Burn and others on this trip but we plan to
return next year to complete the task.However, John Douvis and Yiannis Zangoyiannis tested an alternate route up to Chalkomata Spring.This begins at the Chalkomata Bridge, just over a mile west of the village of Ano Damasta, at coordinates 38.47.43N, 22.26.60E.They proceeded in an easterly direction (heading of 81East) until they reached the Chalkomata Spring area.The Damasta Spur/Chalkomata approaches join the path near this point and all three become one to Elevtherochori.John and Yiannis reported that this was an extremely difficult and steep climb, often narrow in parts and not a good candidate.It took them about four hours to complete their trip.
We
may be able to reject the Damasta/Chalkomata routes as likely
candidates, however, on more than just their topographical difficulties.The hike up these routes is much shorter and Wallace and Pritchett made it to Elevtherochori in an hour and a half.Since
the trip from Elevtherochori to Nevropolis (where other scholars
suggest the skirmish with the Phokians took place) is only slightly
longer than an hour this would have placed the Persians at Nevropolis
shortly past midnight and not at dawn, as Herodotus informs us (in
Greece, sunrise is about 5.35 a.m. in August).If the
skirmish did not take place at Nevropolis but at the crest, 1.8 miles
further up the mountain, the Damasta/Chalkomata approaches would still
have the Persians arriving there no later than 1.30 a.m. Clearly this
is much too early in the morning, and based on the time estimates
provided us by Wallace and Pritchett (among others) for walking this
route, we must reject it as a likely candidate.
Finally,
had the Persians arrived at Nevropolis soon after midnight, or at the
crest at about 1 am, they would then have reached the Middle Gate about
6 am, well before the time Xerxes launched the attack that morning.
In
fact, Xerxes delayed the start of the battle on the final day until
about 9 am, the time “the forum is wont to fill,” so Herodotus tells us
and the battle had been raging for some time before Hydarnes and his
Immortals were able to join in.
New Questions
1. Our expedition has raised new questions about the location of the Phokian defense position.Both Pritchett and Wallace place it in Nevropolis, in a meadow in a bowl-like plateau, which is surrounded by craggy outcrops.
The
problem with the above location for the Phokian defense position is
that soon after the skirmish with the Persians, Herodotus writes that
Hydarnes and The Immortals descended the crest of the mountain.Unfortunately,
the top of the mountain lies another 1.8 miles beyond Nevropolis, after
a somewhat steep ascent from 3000’ to 3650’.If we accept
the crest of Kallidromos (just north of Paliovoros and Lazara at
coordinates 38:45.35N, 22:30.79E, elevation 3650’) as the more likely
location of the Phokian defense position, rather than Nevropolis,
certain inconsistencies are more easily resolved.Clearly the descent of the Persians from the crest makes.Also, Herodotus tells us that the Phokians retreated to the top of the mountain where they prepared to make their final stand.This alternate location has a true crest while Nevropolis does not.Lastly,
the time frames fit the crest of the mountain slightly better than
Nevropolis because it takes about four hours from the crest while we
need to add just over another hour from Nevropolis.Thus,
the hike from the crest would have brought the Persians to the Middle
Gate at about 10 a.m. while the hike from the Nevropolis would have
them arriving soon after 11 a.m.While both times are feasible we suggest that the only way to resolve this difficulty is to check both areas for arrowheads.We intend to test this hypothesis when we return in the spring of 2001.
2. Our expedition has also raised questions about the location of the true Anopaia path.Herodotus
tells us that after crossing the Asopus the Persians picked up the
Anopaia and marched along the side of the mountain to the summit of
Kallidromos (which in his day was also known as Anopaia).The
Anopaia was an ancient path, which had been used to access southern
Greece from the north, especially when the pass at Thermopylae was
waterlogged.We know for example that Bessus the Gaul used the Anopaia when he invaded Greece with 40,000 horses in 297 BC.Clearly, the path in ancient times must have been suitable for this type of traffic.The
path we took from the Asopus to Elevtherochori, which other scholars
suggest is the Anopaia, is steep and not suitable for horses.However,
an alternate route, which starts just below Kastro Orias and continues
by Papadhia all the way to Nevropolis, may well provide some answers.We intend to test this hypothesis in the summer of 2001.
Since
the Anopaia was an ancient path used by locals and several invaders on
horseback to connect with mainland Greece from the north, it may well
be that the Persians may not have connected with the Anopaia until
Nevropolis, unless they went by way of Papadhia, thus bypassing
Elevtherochori all together.If this is the case, and the
way by Papadhia is the true Anopaia, either the Persians did not access
the Anopaia until Nevropolis (if they went through Elevtherochori) or
they went by way of Papadhia.Herodotus of course tells us that the Anopaia begins at the Asopus “where the stream flows through the cleft in the hills, “.This
could mean just below and northeast of Kastro Orias or Herodotus may be
referring to the cleft out of which the Asopus debouches into the
Malian Gulf.If the former is correct and the Persians
took the Anopaia at the Asopus below Kastro Orias, the Papadhia route
then becomes a likely candidate.This path ascends gently (initially) in a northeasterly direction all the way to Nevropolis.If
on the other hand Herodotus means that the beginning of the Anopaia was
in the Malian Gulf this opens up another option, which we plan to
investigate in the summer of 2001.
While
Kirsten does not regard this as an ancient road (and Wallace concurs
with him) this does not preclude the possibility that such a road was
developed over the ancient path. In fact, this is highly likely, for
many modern roads in Greece follow the topography of ancient routes. In
this case the gradient is moderate and it could support the passage of
horses, horse drawn carts and regular civilian traffic.In
fact, when Bessus invaded Greece there is no way he could have taken
horses up by way of Kalivia to Elevtherochori. The path is simply too
steep. Therefore, these factors may disqualify the route from the
Asopus through Kalivia to Elevtherochori as the true Anopaia.And,
if as Herodotus claims, the Persians took the Anopaia beginning at the
Asopus, it may well be that the route by Papadhia may be the correct
route.
We
were able to observe a part of this alternate route (and film it) from
the northern slopes of the valley below Elevtherochori.Further,
the British General Staff Map (Lamia Sheet T7, 1944 Edition) clearly
shows a path from Papadhia leading all the way to Nevropolis.
To determine the suitability of this path we plan to hike this segment form Papadhia to Nevropolis in the spring of 2001.Until such time, this alternate route is an untested hypothesis.
Tentative Conclusions
Based
on all available evidence, and our own experience with having hiked the
various paths, it is our position that the Persians started near
Varthates at about 9 p.m. and marched up the mountain by Dyo Vouna.They cleared the crest and then turned in a southeasterly direction towards the Asopus.They
crossed the Asopus below Kastro Orias (which may be Mount Oeta of old)
and then turned in a northerly direction toward Kalivia all the way up
to Elevtherochori (an alternate hypothesis advanced by us, however,
suggests that they may have taken the route by Papadhia directly by
Nevropolis, thus bypassing Elevtherochori all together).From Elevtherochori they took an easterly route to Nevropolis.At Nevropolis just past a lake, they took the northern fork, which placed them at the crest of the mountain at about 5 am.Here we believe the skirmish with the Phokians took place.After the skirmish, the Persians regrouped and descended the mountain at about 6 a.m.They continued in a northeasterly direction until they reached the third valley east of Thermopylae.They
then marched north toward the Malian Plain, past Drakospilia and the
modern Monastery Panayia Thermopilon, all the way down to the main road
slightly north and west of Alpenoi.This would have brought them to a point about 1.4 miles east of the battlefield.Here they regrouped and marched in force to meet the Greeks.The
front ranks probably established contact with the remaining Spartans
and Thespians at about 10 am. (which is consistent with the time
estimates provided by Wallace).By now the battle would have been raging for at least an hour.
